Long before the thunder of cannons and the invention of gunpowder, ancient and medieval armies relied on raw physics, ingenuity, and pure manpower to wage war. Among the most powerful tools in their arsenal was the catapult, an ancient siege weapon that not only smashed city walls but may have also served as one of the first instruments of biological warfare in human history.
The catapult, known in Greek as katapeltes, meaning “shield piercer,” was developed to launch large stones or other projectiles against fortified positions. It appeared first in ancient Greece, where engineers began experimenting with mechanical devices capable of hurling objects over long distances. Some even credit Archimedes with early versions of rotary catapults, laying the foundation for more advanced siege technology in later centuries.
But the real leap in catapult design came from the East. As early as the 5th century BCE, during China’s Warring States period, armies began using what we now call the traction trebuchet. These massive wooden machines, powered by dozens or even hundreds of soldiers pulling ropes, could fling heavy stones with incredible force. Known in Chinese as “pao” (炮), these catapults became a key feature in ancient siege warfare, capable of breaking walls, destroying defenses, and spreading chaos among enemy ranks.
The evolution continued in medieval Europe, where by the 12th century a new and even more powerful siege weapon emerged — the counterweight trebuchet. Unlike the earlier models, this version relied on gravity. Engineers used enormous swinging weights to power the launch, replacing the need for massed human labor. These trebuchets could launch projectiles weighing over 300 pounds (136 kg) across distances of 300 yards (274 meters) or more. The technology eventually made its way back to China via Mongol conquests, where it became known as the Huihui Pao, reflecting its Middle Eastern origins.
While the engineering behind the catapult is impressive, the darker side of its history truly stands out.
Beyond hurling stones and flaming barrels, ancient and medieval armies used catapults for something far more sinister: psychological and biological warfare. In 1346, during the Mongol siege of the Black Sea port city of Kaffa (now Feodosia, Ukraine), the Mongols reportedly launched the bodies of plague victims over the city walls using catapults. These bodies, infected with the deadly bubonic plague, were intended to spread the disease inside the city. This event marks the first recorded use of bacteriological warfare in human history. Plague had originated in Central Asia, carried by rodents, particularly prairie dogs, and by 1348, the Black Death had ravaged Europe, killing over 25 million people in just a few short years.
This terrifying use of the catapult wasn’t just about killing. It was about breaking morale, spreading disease, and forcing surrender through fear and illness. As bizarre as it sounds today, these gruesome tactics were brutally effective.
The rise of catapults transformed the very nature of ancient and medieval warfare. Cities had to reinforce walls, redesign fortifications, and adapt to the reality that enemies could strike from afar with devastating force. Military strategy shifted as well. Battles were no longer confined to the gates; now, a war could begin from a distance.
Eventually, the catapult was made obsolete by gunpowder weapons like cannons and mortars. But for more than a thousand years, it stood as one of the most feared and reliable siege engines in history.
Today, the catapult is remembered not just as a remarkable feat of ancient and medieval engineering but also as an early example of how science and war have long been intertwined. Whether it launched stones or spread sickness, the catapult played a powerful and often disturbing role in the evolution of human conflict.
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